How to Support Third-Culture Kids

May 3, 2026 

For many people, the word “home” conjures familiar memories of a childhood bedroom, a neighborhood park, or the kitchen table where the family gathered each evening. But for children who spend their formative years growing up in a country or countries not their own because of their parents’ careers, home can be rooted in a variety of places.

Third-culture kids (TCKs) are children who spend a significant part of their developmental years outside their parents’ culture. The term was first coined by sociologists John and Ruth Useem in the 1950s to describe the children of Americans working and living abroad. Today, the term encompasses children of diplomats, international businesspeople, missionaries, foreign aid workers, and military personnel. These children experience a uniquely nomadic and international upbringing shaped by transitions that can uproot their lives.

As Ann Baker Cottrell, a retired sociology professor at San Diego State University and longtime TCK researcher, has noted in her work, the concept of a “third culture” can be difficult to pin down because people typically define culture in traditional terms such as religion and nationality. TCKs occupy a space of in-betweenness that not everyone can relate to.

An immigrant, for example, might feel uncertain and caught between cultures when they move, but they generally recognize that they are settling into a new place and are expected to adjust. A TCK, by contrast, is not always expected to assimilate, as the assumption is that they will eventually return home. Yet even returning to their home country may feel foreign if they have spent a significant portion of their childhood overseas, making their cultural identity harder to define.

According to Ruth Van Reken, co-author of Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds and co-founder of Families in Global Transition, TCKs share the following common characteristics:

  • Cross-cultural lifestyle: TCKs develop a broad world view and often serve as “cultural bridges” between people. Global identity is important to them. In her research, Cottrell surveyed 603 adult TCKs and found that more than two-thirds considered maintaining an international dimension in their lives important.
  • High mobility: TCKs frequently and repeatedly change cultural environments. As a result, they tend to be more rootless and restless, but also remarkably adaptable. Cottrell’s research found that roughly eight out of ten TCKs believe they can relate to anyone, regardless of racial, ethnic, religious, or cultural differences.
  • Expected repatriation: TCKs are eventually expected to return to their home country, even if they haven’t spent much time there — a transition that can feel as disorienting as any international move.

The TCK population continues to grow. According to Families in Global Transition, globalization, increased remote work, and the expansion of international organizations have made cross-border family mobility more common than ever, making it essential for counselors and educators to understand the TCK experience.

What Mental and Emotional Challenges Do Third-Culture Kids Face?

Stress and anxiety are common among TCKs, who are repeatedly expected to leave established communities with little time to process the move and then expend the emotional energy necessary to build new relationships.

In its 2025 report, Protective Factors That Improve Long-Term Wellness in TCKs, TCK Training published findings from a survey of more than 1,900 adult TCKs using the well-established Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) framework. The results revealed that 21% of TCKs reported high-risk ACE scores of four or more, compared to 12.5% of individuals in the general U.S. population. The report also found that high mobility during childhood significantly raised the risk of elevated ACE scores, and that TCKs experienced emotional abuse and emotional neglect at roughly four times the rate documented in the CDC-Kaiser ACE study conducted in the United States.

However, the report also identified a powerful counterweight: Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs). Drawing on broader resilience research, TCK Training found that when six or seven PCEs are present during childhood, even alongside multiple adverse experiences, the risk of developing depression in adulthood drops by 72%. The seven PCEs include feeling heard, feeling prioritized, feeling safe, having peers, maintaining family traditions, experiencing a sense of belonging at school, and having supportive non-parent adults who take a genuine interest in you.

The Challenges That Can Begin To Emerge Around Late Childhood Or Early Adolescence Include:

  • Intense negative emotions: As TCKs move around, they lose contact with familiar people and places, which can lead to withdrawal, isolation, or aggression.
  • Unresolved grief: Moving environments can make grief feel sudden and intense. TCK Training’s research emphasizes that when children do not feel adequately supported — or when their parents are themselves under the heightened stress that often accompanies expatriate life — anger and depression can manifest. The report notes that expatriates are, on average, twice as vulnerable to mental health difficulties, which can make it harder for parents to fully meet their children’s emotional needs.
  • Difficulty forming attachments: TCKs might have trouble forming and maintaining long-term relationships. According to TCK Training, many TCKs develop a pattern of emotional self-protection: they desire close connections but may hold back from investing in new friendships to avoid the pain of inevitable future goodbyes.
  • Delayed adolescence: TCK Training’s findings are consistent with earlier research indicating that many adult TCKs report feeling out of sync with their age group. Some avoided settling down, getting married, or establishing a career in favor of living a prolonged, exploratory lifestyle — a pattern that can persist well into adulthood.

What Does Transition Look Like for Third-Culture Kids?

Not only are TCKs moving from one home to another, but they are also repeatedly relocating between cultures. In a paper sponsored by the American Counseling Association (ACA), researchers discuss implications for professional counselors working with this population and highlight the five stages of transition that adolescent TCKs experience.

  1. Involvement. At this stage, TCKs feel comfortable and connected to their community. They are focused on the present moment; the past and future are not of major concern.
  2. Leaving. TCKs begin to mentally prepare for departure. This can include detaching from friendships, denying feelings of grief so that leaving feels less painful, and recognizing that all relationships eventually end. Heightened feelings of vulnerability and a lack of control are common.
  3. Transition. Without sufficient support and an established social network, TCKs may withdraw and disengage. They become less expressive with their emotions and may experience loss of self-esteem because they are learning everything over again. Making a cultural or linguistic mistake can lead to greater stress, anxiety, and shame.
  4. Entering. TCKs begin to grow accustomed to their new environment, fluctuating between excitement about new life prospects and a sense of missing the familiarity of their previous home. Feeling less chaotic and unstable, TCKs consciously integrate into their new community and may exaggerate certain aspects of their personality during adjustment.
  5. Reinvolvement. Focused once again on the present, TCKs feel more connected to their new community and reminisce about the past less frequently. They can take pride in their ability to adapt and settle into different environments.

How Can Counselors Support Third-Culture Kids During Transition Periods?

In an increasingly globalized world, counselors are well-positioned to deepen their understanding of cross-cultural communication, multiculturalism, and diversity to better support people like TCKs. According to the ACA, counselors must individually assess each TCK and their specific experiences to pinpoint transition-related stressors. To best serve TCKs, OnlineCounselingPrograms.com compiled a list of evidence-based tips for counselors.

FOCUS ON CULTURAL COMPETENCE

  • Address your own biases and assumptions about people and culture. Ask yourself whether you are making assumptions about how clients experience your culture based on predetermined ideas.
  • Adopt a broader perspective on culture and global living. Recognize that subcultures exist within cultures and that culture extends beyond race and ethnicity.
  • Acknowledge differences in backgrounds and multiple dimensions with TCKs. Not all TCKs live an upscale, privileged lifestyle. As the TCK Training research on adverse childhood experiences in TCKs has highlighted, painful realities — including racism, neglect, and family conflict — are sometimes minimized within expat communities to preserve an image of ease.

LISTEN WITHOUT JUDGMENT

  • According to Cottrell, it is important to let TCKs know that most people might not understand their full experience, and that’s okay.
  • Reach out often, especially if a TCK is starting a new school or has recently relocated.
  • Encourage TCKs to maintain connections with friends using video calls, messaging, and social media. Digital tools have become central to how globally mobile youth sustain relationships across borders.

ACKNOWLEDGE GRIEF

  • Divide losses into categories — such as friends, teachers, favorite places, pets, food, and weather — and give TCKs space to express how they felt about each loss, as Bushong suggests.
  • Do not reframe TCK losses into gains, because this can lead to feelings of shame, withdrawal, or anger.
  • Name and identify emotions, and practice developing healthier emotional responses to loss.

LEVERAGE VIRTUAL COUNSELING OPTIONS

  • Telehealth has expanded access to culturally competent care for TCKs regardless of location. Counselors who offer virtual sessions can provide continuity of care across moves — a significant advantage given that TCK families relocate frequently.
  • According to TCK Training, directories of therapists specializing in TCK issues are available on their platform and through the FIGT Research Network.

ENCOURAGE PARENTS TO BE SUPPORTIVE

  • Parents can try to minimize disruption by timing relocations to align with the start of a new school year or semester when possible.
  • Parents can also host open discussions about new challenges and learning curves, such as saying goodbye to friends or getting to know a different culture.
  • Involving children in age-appropriate decision-making about the move — such as choosing how to decorate their new room or identifying an activity to join — can restore a sense of agency.

Are you interested in pursuing a career in counseling adolescents and teens? Learn more about how to become a child counselor and the requirements for getting licensed.

Where Can I Get Help for Third-Culture Kids?

Exposing TCKs to information and resources on TCK life can build familiarity with what it means to be a TCK. This can help them feel less alone in what they are going through and better understand why they may feel different.

Organizations and Support Groups

  • Families in Global Transition (FIGT) — A leading community for globally mobile individuals, families, and the professionals who support them. FIGT hosts an annual forum and maintains a research network.
  • TCK Training — An industry leader in preventive care training and education for parents, caregivers, and organizations. Offers research-backed courses and a directory of TCK-informed counselors.
  • Interaction International — A catalyst and resource for TCK care, providing programs, publications, and reentry events for internationally mobile families.
  • Daraja — Founded by Michael Pollock, co-author of Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds, Daraja offers coaching, consulting, and advocacy for quality TCK care.
  • TCKid NOW — A nonprofit community with over 23,000 members and local chapters worldwide, providing connection and engagement for TCKs and adult TCKs.
  • Sea Change — Helps international schools design social-emotional learning programs and wellbeing frameworks that support TCKs during transitions.

Books

Podcasts and Videos

Research and Professional Resources

  • FIGT Research Network — A free global network of researchers studying internationally mobile populations, offering published studies and collaboration opportunities.
  • TCK Training Research — Publishes research reports on adverse childhood experiences in TCKs, protective factors, and preventive care, including a 2024 survey and 2025 white paper on long-term wellness.
  • University of Edinburgh TCK Research — Dr. Laura Cariola’s research project exploring TCKs, digital technology, and mental health, including digital toolkits for TCKs and their parents.
  • Ruth Van Reken’s Cross-Cultural Kids — Resources, articles, and the broader “cross-cultural kid” framework developed by the co-author of Third Culture Kids.

Information Last Updated: April 2026